Xunzi

The Xunzi is a collection of writings attributed to Xun Kuang, known as Xun Zi or Master Xun, a Chinese philosopher of the Warring States period, usually placed in the 3rd century BC. He is generally associated with the Confucian tradition, although his thought departs from that of Mencius on decisive points. The book is best known for its emphasis on education and propriety, and for its claim that human nature is detestable: people, Xunzi holds, are naturally inclined towards selfishness and become good only through conscious effort and social institutions.

The text is an important source for early theories of ritual, cosmology and governance. Its ideas are thought to have strongly influenced Legalist thinkers such as Han Fei, and it laid much of the groundwork for the political ideology of the Han dynasty. It also criticises other prominent figures, among them Laozi, Zhuangzi, Mozi and Mencius. Among its most significant chapters is the "Discussion of Heaven", which rejects the notion that heaven has a moral will and argues that it operates by constant principles, so that people should concentrate on the human and social realm. The "Discussion of Ritual Propriety" sets out rules of individual and social decorum, while "Dispelling Obsessions" warns that whoever fixes on a single aspect of a situation loses sight of its wider purpose. Another central chapter, "Correct Naming", holds that terms become valid through conventional usage and, once fixed, should not be departed from.

Its textual history is also notable. Around the 1st century BC, Liu Xiang gathered the work, then circulating as hundreds of loose fascicles, into 32 bundles of bamboo strips. The earliest surviving commentary dates from 818, when the official Yang Liang claimed to have corrected the errors in those strips and transcribed the text onto silk scrolls; his commentary still appears in some modern editions. Since the invention of printing in China the book has been reprinted continuously.

The essays are not arranged chronologically. One of the most cited, on music, answers Mozi, who had discouraged music as a wasteful expense for the state. Following Confucius, Xunzi argues that music created by the sage kings works like ritual: it moderates and restrains both listener and performer, and can unite people and bring soldiers into order. He admits, however, that some music can lead to licentiousness, so the gentleman must be wary of his surroundings and of the sounds he hears.